EMOTION REGULATION

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Cognition & Emotion
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Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future
James J. Gross
To cite this article: James J. Gross (1999) Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future, Cognition &
Emotion, 13:5, 551-573, DOI: 10.1080/026999399379186
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Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future
James J. G ross
Stanford University, California, USA
M odern em ot ion th eor ies empha sise the adap t ive va lue of emot ions. Emo -
tions are by no means always help fu l, however. They often must be regu lated .
The study of emot ion regu lation has its o r igins in the psychoa na lytic and
stress and cop ing trad it ions. Recen t ly, increa sed interest in emot ion regu la-
tion has led to crucia l boundary ambigu it ies that n ow threaten progress in
th is domain . I t is a rgued that d ist inct ions need to be m ad e between
(1) regu lat ion of emo t ion and regu lation by emot ion ; (2) emot ion regu lat ion
in self and emot ion regu lation in o thers; and (3) conscious and nonconscious
emot ion regu lat ion . U sing a process model o f emot ion generat ion , th is review
considers p rom ising research on basic p rocesses and ind ividua l d ifferences in
emot ion regu lat ion and poses ® ve theoretica l cha llenges.
INTRODUCTION
C on tem p ora ry concep t ion s o f em otio n em p hasise em otion s’ posit ive ro le in
adap ta t ion (e.g. L aza ru s, 1991; Too by & C o sm id es, 1990). E m o tion s a re
sa id to ta ilo r cogn it ive style to situa t iona l dem a nds (C lore, 1994), t o facil-
it a te d ecision -m ak ing (O a t ley & Joh nson-L a ird , 1987), to p repa re the
in d ivid ua l for rap id m o to r respon ses (F r ijda , 1986), and to p rom o te lea rn -
in g (C ah ill, P r ins, Weber, & M cG a ugh , 1994). I n ad d it ion to t hese in tr a -
o rgan ism ic fu nct io ns, em otio ns a lso a re t hou gh t to h ave im por tan t socia l
fun ct io ns. Fo r exa m p le, em o tio ns a re h eld t o p rovid e in fo rm a t ion abo u t
behavio u ra l in ten t io ns (E km an , F riesen , & E llswo rth , 1972; F r id lu nd ,
1994), to give clues a s t o whether som eth ing is goo d o r b ad (Wa lden ,
1991), and to ¯ exib ly scr ip t com plex so cia l behavio u r (Averill, 1980).
A t ten t ion to the fu nct ions em o tion s serve h as p rovided a forcefu l an d
m uch-n eeded cou n terp o in t t o th e lon g-st an d ing view o f em ot io ns a s
CO G N IT IO N AN D E M O TIO N , 1999, 13 (5), 551±573
Request s for rep r in ts sh ou ld be sen t to D r. James J. G ross, D epar tm ent o f Psycho logy,
Stan ford U n iversity, St an fo rd, CA 94305-2130; E-m a il: jam es@psych .st an fo rd.edu .
Prepar ation o f this a r t icle was su ppo rt ed by G rant M H 53859 from the N ationa l In st itu te o f
M ental H ealth . The autho r wou ld like to th ank Bram F ridhandler, Judy M oskowitz, Jerry
Pa rrot t , two anonym ous reviewers, and mem bers o f th e St anford P sychophysio logy L abora -
to ry fo r help ful com men ts on an earlier d ra ft of this a r ticle.
q 1999 P sychology P ress L td
dysfunct ion a l and d isru p t ive (You ng, 1943). I ndeed , the trend toward
fu nct ion a l app ro aches has ga th ered su ch m om en tu m tha t it n ow m ust be
asked : A re em otion s ever to b e regu la ted ?
In the pa st two decades, a n ew resea rch do m a in has em erged tha t is
con cern ed with just th is qu est ion . T h e core const ruct in t h is do m a in Ð
em o tion regu la tio nÐ ® r st cam e in to use in th e develo pm en ta l litera tu re
in t he ea r ly 1980s (C am p os, Ba rret t , L am b, G o ldsm ith , & Stenberg,
1983; G aensba uer, 1982). Sin ce th is t ime, em ot io n regu la to ry p rocesses
h ave en joyed increa sing a t ten t ion in bo th develo pm en ta l (C am pos,
C a m p os, & Bar ret t , 1989) and adu lt (G ross, 1998b) litera tu res, a s
resea rchers fro m a va riety o f t r ad it ion s have exam ined h ow ind ividua ls
in ¯ uence which em ot io ns they h ave, when th ey have th em , and how th ey
exper ien ce and express these em o tio ns. In t h is a r t icle, I ® r st descr ib e two
m a jor p recu rso rs t o th e stu dy o f em otion regu la tio n : T he p sychoan a lyt ic
t r ad it io n a nd the stress an d co p in g t rad it io n . I th en use a p rocess m o del
o f em o tion genera t ion to p rovid e a fram ewo rk fo r stu dyin g em o tion
regu la t io n , and con sider severa l bou nd a ry issues. To illu st ra te con tem -
p ora ry resea rch in th is a rea , I review prom ising work o n ba sic p rocesses
an d ind ividua l d ifferen ces in a du lt em otion regu lat ion . I conclu de by
con sider ing sever a l th eo ret ica l ch a llenges a nd d irectio ns fo r fu t u re
resea rch .
HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS
R esearch sp eci® ca lly con cern ed with em o tion regu lat ion is a rela t ively
recen t in nova t io n , bu t an in terest in h ow em o tion s can and shou ld b e
regu la ted is anyt h ing bu t n ew (Averill, 1982). P h ilo sop hers from So cra tes
o n h ave grapp led with t he ro le em ot io n shou ld p lay in everyd ay a ffa irs, and
to th is d ay o ne o f the co re t hem es in Western p h ilo sophy is th e con test
b etween reason an d th e p assions (So lom on , 1976). In th e p ast cen tu ry, th is
lon g-stand ing in terest in em o tion regu la t io n h as b een p layed ou t in two
p rincip a l a ren as. Togeth er, th ese h ave set t he stage fo r con tem p ora ry
resea rch on em otio n regu lat ion .
The Psychoanalytic Tradition
O ne im po rt an t p recu r so r to the con t em po ra ry study of em o tion regu la t ion
is t he psychoa na lyt ic t ra d it ion . T h is t rad it ion em p hasises th e con ¯ ict
b etween b io logica lly based imp u lses and in terna l and ext erna l rest ra in ing
fa cto rs. H owever, th e a sso cia t io n b etween p sych oan a lyt ic app roa ches and
em o tion regu la t ion is m ore in t im a te th an a sha red concern with im p u lse
regu la t io n . I ndeed , by the end of F reud ’s ca reer, p sychoa na lyt ic th eo rising
relied heavily o n the no t io n of an xiety regu la t ion (F reud , 1926/1959).
552 GROSS
F reud u sed anxiety a s a ca tch -a ll t erm fo r n ega t ive em o tion s (E rdelyi,
1993), an d a d iscu ssio n of h is views o n anxiety regu lat ion idea lly wo u ld
be couched in a genera l psych oan a lyt ic t heo ry o f a ffect. U nfo rtu na tely, a s
on e com m ent ato r pu t it , any at t em pt a t form ula tin g such a com prehensive
psycho ana lyt ic theo ry is ``ill-advised , if n o t imp ossib le’ ’ due to t he com plex
and con¯ ict ing d iscu ssio ns o f a ffect in F reud ’s wr it in gs (R apaport , 1953, p.
193). O f cour se, th is has n o t p reven ted a num b er o f at t em pts a t devising
su ch a psych oan a lyt ic theo ry o f a ffect (e.g. Ba sch , 1976; Brenn er, 1982;
K rysta l, 1977; Schwar tz, 1987; Sp ezzano, 1993). G iven th e cu r ren t lack of
agreem en t , I fo cu s on anxiety.
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EMOTION REGULATION 573n (F reud , 1900/1950; 1915/1976) . H e saw anxiety a s
ep ip heno m ena l, like steam escap in g from a stuck tu rb ine. W ith t he d evel-
op m en t o f the str uctu r a l m odel o f person a lit y, F reud developed a very
d ifferen t concep t ion of anxiety (F reud , 1926/1959). F reud (1933/1964)
a rgued th at t he ego a lone can produ ce and exp erience an xiet y, an d th at
rea list ic, n eu ro t ic, and m ora l a nxiety derived from th e ego ’s relat ion s with
rea lity, the id , an d th e sup erego, respect ively. R ea lity-based an xiety was
tho ugh t to resu lt when the ego was overwhelmed by situa t io na l dem and s.
In t h is ca se, an xiet y regu la t ion to ok th e form of avo id ing su ch situa tio ns in
the fu tu re, even if th is m ean t severe cu rt a ilm en t o f behavio u r, a s in
ago raphob ia . By con tr a st , F reud h eld th a t id - and sup erego -based anxiety
resu lted when im pu lses p ressed fo r a ction and the ego a n t icip ated how it
wou ld feel if such im pu lses were expressed . If the ego ’s im agin a l ru n -
th rough led to h igh levels o f an xiety, su f® cien t u np lea su re wa s generated
to sup press the impu lse (F reud , 1926/1959). I n th is ca se, anxiety regu la t io n
too k the form of cu rta iling im pu lses th at were ju dged likely to crea te fu tu re
anxiety.
A s th is sum m ary suggests, an xiet y regula t ion p lays a cen t ra l ro le in
psycho ana lyt ic theo r isin g. T h is is p a r t icu la r ly tr ue in the st ru ctu ra l
m odel, where ego d efen ces m ay be seen as p rocesses t ha t regu la te anxiety
(F reud , 1926/1959). T h ese p ro cesses typ ica lly a re no t con sciou sÐ bu t they
m ay beÐ and they invo lve d iffer ing levels o f rea lity d isto r t ion , behavio u ra l
im p a irm en t , energy con sum p tion , an d u nnecessary no ngra t i® ca t ion o f
im p u lses (F en ich el, 1945; A . F reud , 1946; H a an , 1977, Va illan t , 1977).
M a la dap t ive defen ces a re t hou gh t to d evelop a s ch ild ren associate situ a-
t ion s o r im pu lses with h igh levels o f anxiety, an d lea rn to regu la te t h is
anxiety th rough id iosyncra t ic and pro b lem at ic form s o f a nxiet y regu la t io n
(Schwar tz, 1987) . Fo r exam ple, in the face o f wild ly inconsisten t p a ren t ing,
ch ild ren lea rn to sh ield th em selves from in to ler ab le anxiety a nd pro t ect
their vita l link s with ca regiver s (H o fer, 1994). In so do in g, t hey m ay
develo p avo ida n t st ra tegies tha t h ave lifelo ng ram i® cat ion s fo r socia l
ad justm en t . Trea tm en t consists o f lea rn ing new ways to regu late anxiet y,
EMOTION REGULATION 553
in pa rt th rou gh a ``co rrect ive em o tiona l experien ce’ ’ (A lexand er, 1950) in
which dreaded consequ ences o f im pu lse expressio n fa il to m ater ia lise
(Basch , 1976).
Continuities and Discontinuities. C on tem po ra ry em o tion regu la t ion
resea rch rem a ins concerned with reducin g n egat ive em o tion exp er ience
th rou gh behavio u ra l o r m en ta l con tro l. T h e ® eld o f study has b roa dened ,
h owever, to in clu de the ways in wh ich ind ividu a ls increa se and decrea se
th e experience a nd expression o f a r ange of n ega t ive and po sit ive em o-
t io ns (Pa rro t t , 1993). T h ere a lso is a growin g awareness o f the d ifferen ces
b etween con scious an d non conscious em ot io n regu la to ry p rocesses
(M ayer & Sa lovey, 1995). E m otion regu lato ry styles still a re seen as
cen tr a l to psycho pa tho logy (C icchet t i, A ckerm an , & Iza rd , 1995; G ro ss
& M u no z, 1995), bu t t here now is grea ter in terest in d irectly a ssessing the
fu ll r ange of no rm a l fu nct ion ing as well (e.g. C a tanza ro, 1996). Perhaps
th e m ost str ik ing d iscon t inu ity, however, is con tem pora ry researchers’
relian ce on correlat ion a l and exper im en ta l m ethod s r ath er tha n clin ica l
repo r ts.
The Stress and Coping Tradition
T h e second im p ort an t p recu rso r to con tem pora ry em o tion regu la t ion
resea rch is th e stress a nd cop ing tra d it ion . T h is t ra d it ion o r igina ted in
th e wo rk of C an non (1914), a ltho ugh it was Selye wh o p opu la r ised the
n o t ion tha t o rgan ism s p ro du ce sim ila r ``st ress’ ’ respo nses t o d iver se cha l-
len ges (Selye, 1956, 1974). T h is view draws up on an an a logy to p hysica l
load s t hat exer t a force on n a tu ra l o r m an -m ade st ructu res, resu lt ing in a
stra in , o r d efo rm a t ion o f the st ructu re d ue to th e stress (H ink le, 1974).
Im p or t ing these no t io ns to the b io logica l rea lm , Selye a rgu ed tha t st resso rs
im p in ge up on th e o rgan ism , which respond s by pro du cing a stereo typ ed
stress response, who se p ro ® le va r ies acco rd in g to wh eth er th e st resso r is o f
sho rt du r a tio n (a la rm ), m o dera te du ra t io n (resist ance), o r lon g d ura t ion
(exhau st io n ).
In terest in st ress research grew d uring Wor ld War II , a s resea rchers
exp lored the consequences o f war on ® gh t ing m en (e.g. G r in ker &
Spiegel, 1945), an d con t inu ed to ga in m om en tum aft er the war a s a t ten -
t io n sh ifted to th e stresses o f peacetim e. A ltho ugh ear ly stress resea rch
fo cu sed o n respon ses t o physical cha llenges su ch as crowding and co ld ,
resea rchers soo n began to exp lo re respon ses to psychological stresso r s a s
well. T h e stu dy o f p sych o logica l st ress led to an em pha sis on the cogn it ive
p rocesses requ ired to tr ansform an extern a l even t in to som eth ing with
ad ap t ive sign i® ca nce for th e ind ivid ua l (Laza rus, 1966). T h is led to d is-
t in ction s am on g: (a ) h ow the situa t ion was eva lua ted (p r im ary appra isa l);
554 GROSS
(b ) how the organ ism viewed it s own capacit ies t o respo nd (seco nda ry
appra isa l); and (c) how th e o rgan ism a t tem p ted to m an age th e trou bled
organ ism -enviro nm ent rela t ion tha t occasioned the st ress (cop in g). St ress
was de ® n ed as `̀ a rela t ionsh ip between th e per son a nd th e environm en t
tha t is app ra ised by th e person as relevan t t o h is o r h er well-bein g a nd in
which the p erson ’s resou rces a re ta xed or exceeded ’ ’ , an d cop ing wa s
de ® n ed as ``cogn it ive and behavio r a l effo r ts t o m a nage (m aster, reduce,
o r to lera te) a t roub led p erson -environ m en t relat ion sh ip ’ ’ (Fo lkm an &
L aza ru s, 1985, p. 152).
In it ia lly, com m o na lt ies were em p hasised across situ at ion s r anging fro m
the o rd ina ry, such as tak in g an exam (M echan ic, 1962) to t he extr ao r-
d ina ry, su ch as being trapp ed in a coa l m in e (Lu ca s, 1969). W ith t im e,
resea rch ers began to d ist in gu ish am o ng st resso rs. L a zarus (1966) d e ® n ed
harm a s a fo rm of stress a ssocia ted with d am age th at h as b een done,
threat as a fo rm of st ress a ssocia ted with fu tu re h a rm , and challenge as a
form of stress a sso cia ted with p osit ive respon d in g. L ikewise, Selye (1974)
d ist in gu ish ed b etween eustressÐ a form of st ress a ssocia t ion with goo d
feelings, an d distressÐ a fo rm o f stress a ssocia ted with bad feelings.
D ist inct io ns a lso were m ad e a m on g cop in g respo nses, such as L aza ru s
and co lleagues’ d ist in ctio n between problem-focused coping, wh ich wa s
a imed at ® xing th e p rob lem , an d emotion-focused coping, which wa s
a imed a t lessen ing n ega t ive em otion experience. I t wa s th is la st con -
st ruct , in p a rt icu la r, tha t la id t he grou ndwork for the study of em o tio n
regu la tion .
Continuities and Discontinuities. R esea rch ers lon g have bem o aned th e
concep tu a l con fusion associa ted with th e term stress (e.g. H a an , 1993;
H obfo ll, 1989). T he prob lem is tha t ``st ress’ ’ cover s such an extr ao rd in -
a ry r ange of p henom ena th at m any have conclu ded tha t ` t̀h e termis
m ean in gless’ ’ (L evine & U rsin , 1991, p. 3). L ikewise, cop in g now seem s
to inclu de the fu ll r ange of behavio u r em itted by a n in d ivid ua l in t axing
circum sta nces (C osta , So m er ® eld , & M cC rae, 1996). E m otio n regu la t ion
resea rch ers have sough t ® n er-gra ined d ist inct ion s am ong enviro nm en t-
o rgan ism in t eract io ns than a re p ossible und er the b road ru b ric o f st ress,
u sin g either d im en sion a l (D avidson , 1992; L a ng, 1995) o r d iscrete
(Ek m an , 1992) approa ches. O n the cop ing side, too, em otion regu la t ion
resea rch ers a re focu sing increa singly on sp eci® c em o tio n regu la to ry
p ro cesses such as rum ina t io n (N o len -H o eksem a , 1993), sup pressio n
(G ross, 1998a ), an d d own ward so cia l com par iso n (A sp inwa ll & Taylo r,
1993). O f th e two term sÐ cop in g and em otio n regu la t ion Ð cop ing is th e
b ro ader catego ry, a s it inclu des no nem otion a l act io ns t aken to ach ieve
no nem o tiona l goa ls (Scheier, Weinb tr aub , & C arver, 1986), such as
bu ying a m ap in o rder to navigate a new city. C o p ing a lso d iffer s
EMOTION REGULATION 555
from em o tion regu la tion in tha t t he un it o f an a lysis is typ ica lly lo ngerÐ
extended per io ds o f ho urs, days, o r m o n th s r ath er tha n secon ds o r
m inu tes. T hus, fo r exam ple, o ne m igh t speak o f cop ing with ad justm en t
to freshm an yea r o f college, o r cop ing with th e loss o f o ne’s spo use.
H owever, cop ing do es n o t en t irely sub sum e em otion regu la t ion : E m otion
regu la t io n in clud es p ro cesses n o t typ ica lly con sidered in t he cop ing
litera tu re, such as regu la t ing exp ressive o r physio logica l a sp ects o f em o-
t io n , o r in ¯ u encin g posit ively va len ced em otion s.
CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
W ith p sych oan a lyt ic and stress and cop ing tr ad it ion s a s a b ackdro p,
em o tion regu la t io n research ha s em erged as a rela t ively d ist inct do m a in
over th e past two decades (G ro ss, 1998b ). Pa r am ou n t concerns in clu de
d e® n ing em otion and em ot io n regu la t io n , and delinea t in g ind ividu a ls’
em o tion regu la to ry go a ls and str a tegies.
De® ning Emotion
F ro m an evolu t io na ry p ersp ect ive, em otion sÐ like m any of o ur p hysica l
a t t r ibu tes and psych o logica l p ro cessesÐ rep resent t im e-tested so lu t io ns to
ad ap t ive p ro b lem s (Too by & C o sm ides, 1990). In pa rt icu la r, em otio ns a re
th ou gh t to h ave a risen because they ef® cien t ly co -ord in ate d iver se respon se
system s, thereby h elp in g u s respond to im por tan t cha llen ges o r opp or tu -
n it ies (Levenson , 1994). Take fear, fo r exa m p le. W hen we a re a fra id , o u r
sen ses a re sha rpened , ou r m uscles a re p rim ed to m ove us qu ick ly ou t o f
h a rm ’s way, an d ou r card iova scu la r syst em is tun ed to p rovide in crea sed
oxygen an d energy to la rge m uscle gro up s tha t will be ca lled u pon when we
¯ ee. T hese em ot io na l react ion s typ ica lly a re sho rt -lived , and involve
cha nges in sub jective experience, exp ressive b ehaviou r, a nd cen t ra l, au to -
n om ic a nd endocr in e respo nse system s (L an g, 1995). D ifferen t em ot io ns
a re tho ugh t to add ress d ifferen t a dap t ive p rob lem s (e.g. E km an , 1992;
I zard , 1977; P lu tch ik , 1980), a lt hou gh th ere is cu rren t ly lively d eba te
abou t the ext en t t o wh ich each em otio n ca lls for th d ist in gu ishab le, cross-
sit uat io na lly con sisten t p hysio logica l (Ca ciop po, K lein , Bern t son , & H at-
® eld , 1993; L evenson , 1992; Z a jonc & M cIn to sh , 1992) an d b ehaviou ra l
(E km an , 1994; F rijd a , 1986; R ussell, 1994) responses. If ``a ffect ’ ’ is u sed to
refer t o va len ced (``goo d-ba d ’ ’ ) react io ns to st imu li o r situa t ions t ha t a re
m ean ingfu l t o the in d ivid ua l (Scherer, 1984), em o tio ns a re pa r t o f t he
la rger a ffect ive fam ily th a t a lso in clud es: (a ) stress responses to taxing
circu m stances; (b ) emotion episodes su ch as a ba r-room b rawl an d deliver-
ing bad n ews to a close fr ien d; a nd (c) moods su ch as d ep ression and
eup hor ia .
556 GROSS
De® ning Emotion Regulation
T he ph ra se ``em ot io n regu lat ion ’ ’ is am b iguou s, a s it m igh t refer equa lly
well to how em ot io ns regu la te som eth ing elseÐ such as th ough ts o r b eha-
viou rÐ or to h ow em ot ions a re t hem selves regu la ted (D od ge & G arber,
1991). H owever, if a p rima ry fu nct io n of em otio n is to co -o rd ina te d iverse
respo nse system s (C am pos et a l., 1983), th e ® r st sense o f em otion regu la-
t ion is la rgely redun dan t with em o tion . Fo r th is rea son , I believe tha t th e
second usage is p referab le, in wh ich em ot io n regu la t ion refer s to the
heterogeneous set o f p rocesses by wh ich em otion s a re th em selves regu -
la ted . Becau se vir tu a lly a ll goa l-d irected b ehaviou r can b e constru ed as
m axim ising p lea su re o r m in im isin g pa inÐ and thus a ffect regu lato ry in
som e bro ad senseÐ it is im p ort an t to p reven t over-inclusivity by na rrow-
in g the focus to p rocesses who se p roxim a l fun ctio n is to regu la te em o tion .
A secon d im po rta n t d ist in ct ion is suggested by resea rchers’ u se o f
em ot io n regu la t ion to refer bo th to how ind ividu a ls in ¯ uence their own
em ot io ns and to how th ey in¯ u ence o ther p eop le’s em otio ns. T h is p ract ice
lead s to d iscussion s in which st i¯ in g o ne’s own tea rs a nd telling som eon e
else to sto p act ing like a cryb aby a re bo th con sidered in stan ces o f em o tion
regu la tion . T h is usage is p a rt icu la r ly com m on in the d evelop m en t a l liter a-
tu re (e.g. M a sters, 1991; T ho m p son , 1994), bu t it is a lso eviden t in th e
adu lt lit era tu re (G ro ss & L evenson , 1993; Sa lovey, H see, & M ayer, 1993). I
now b elieve th is dou b le u sage is un fort una te, a s it m ixes two p o ten t ia lly
qu it e d ifferen t set s o f m ot ives, goa ls, an d stra tegies. Bo th k inds o f em o tion
regu la tion m ust be exam ined , bu t in do in g so , the two sho u ld b e clea r ly
d ist in gu ish ed . In th e fo llowing, I fo cu s on em ot io n regu la t io n in th e self, by
which I m ean th e ways in d ividu a ls in ¯ uence which em ot io ns they h ave,
when th ey have them , a nd how they experien ce and exp ress these em otion s.
In co llo qu ia l usage, em otion is o ft en used in terchan geab ly with th e sub-
ject ive exp er ience o f em ot io n , an d em o tion regu lat ion th us m igh t b e
tho ugh t t o necessa r ily invo lve chan ges in sub jective exper ien ce. H owever,
there is gen era l con sensu s am ong em o tion resea rch ers t ha t em o tion s a re
m ult ico m p onen t ia lÐ span n ing exp er ien t ia l, behavio u ra l, and p hysio logica l
do m a in s. E m ot io n regu la t io n thus invo lves chan ges in o ne or m ore o f these
respo nses system s and need n o t (bu t cer ta in ly can ) invo lve a t tem p ts to
change th e sub jective exp er ien ce o f em o tion .
A th ird d ist in ct ion concerns wh ether em otion regu la t io n is con scious o r
no nconsciou s (M aster s, 1991; M ayer & Sa lovey, 1995). P ro to typ ic exam p les
o f em otio n regu lat ion a re con scious, su ch as d ecid ing to ch ange an up set-
t ing to p ic, o r squelch ing lau gh ter a t a ch ild ’s in app rop riate a n t ics. O n e
m igh t im agine, h owever, em o tion regu lato ry act ivit y occu rr ing witho u t
conscious awa reness, such as when well-p r act ised rou t ines b ecom e au to -
m at ised . E xam p les in clu de h id ing one’s d isappo in tm en t a t an u na t t ra ct ive
EMOTION REGULATION 557
p resen t (C o le, 1986), ligh t ing a ciga rett e when anxio us (Bra ndo n , 1994), o r
even crack ing a jo ke to relieve tension (Fred r ickson & L evenson , 1998).
P reviou s d iscu ssio ns have favou red a ca tego rica l d ist inct ion between con-
sciou s a nd un consciou s p rocesses, bu t it p ro bably is m ore u sefu l to th ink of
a con t inuu m o f p ro cesses th a t va ry in t he degree to which they a re
con tro lled , effo r t fu l, an d conscious ver sus a u to m a tic, effo r t less, and
u nconsciou s. C la r ity ab ou t the na tu re o f p rocesses und er invest iga t ion is
essen t ia l becau se there m ay be im po rta n t d ifferen ces in the an t eceden ts and
con sequences o f em otion regu lato ry p rocesses cha r acter ised by d iffer ing
levels o f consciou sn ess (Wegner & Ba rgh , 1998).
Emotion Regulatory Goals
A n evo lu t iona ry p ersp ect ive h o lds tha t em ot io ns encod e situa t io n -respon se
d epend encies th a t have proven va lu ab le over the sweep of m illenn ia (Too by
& C o sm id es, 1990). T h is in n o way imples, h owever, t ha t em ot io n respon se
tend encies a re a lwaysÐ or even u su a llyÐ appropr iate t o the situa t ions we
n ow fa ce. P hysica l and socia l environ m en ts have cha nged ou t o f a ll recog-
n it io n from th ose tha t sh aped ou r em o tions, an d t echno logica l advan ces
h ave d ram a tica lly m agn i® ed the consequences th at o u r em otion a l
responses m ay have for o u r selves an d o thers. A n irr itab le swip e tha t once
scarcely ra ised a welt , is now tr anslated with th e grea test ea se in to a fa ta l
ca r a cciden t o r gun-rela ted ho m icide.
H owever rea l th e m any b ene® t s o f em ot io n , th en , it is im po rta n t n o t to
overst a te the advan tages o f a ct in g in acco rd with u n t ram m eled em otion a l
im pu lses (Pa rro t t , 1995). In deed , wh en on e su rveys th e cau ses o f hum an
dysfunct ion a nd su ffer in g, one is str uck by the degree to which em ot io ns
lea d u s t o d o th ings th at cau se su ffer in g to ou rselves an d those a rou nd us,
whether t h ro ugh im p u lsive aggressive act ion , h asty business decisio ns, o r
d eceit fu l sexu a l lia ison s. Pa r t icu la r ly when em o tions a re viewed as a r ising
a t m o m en t s o f ch a llenge or o ppo rt un ity, the im po rt ance o f p ro per regu la -
t io n is unm ist akable.
We kn ow relat ively lit t le abo u t ind ividua ls’ em o tion regu la to ry goa ls,
bu t it seem s increa singly clea r th a t em ot io n regu la t ion invo lves b o th
d ecrea sing an d in crea sin g n egat ive and p osit ive em ot io ns (L angsto n ,
1994; M a sters, 1991; Pa rro t t , 1993). E m ot io n regu la t io n th a t invo lves
decreasing em ot io ns m ay occu r wh en : (a ) em o tion s p rom p t b ehaviou ra l
responses th at a re no lo nger usefu l, such as p hysica lly a tt a ck ing a n irr it at -
ing sub ord in ate; (b ) em otion s a r ise from an overly simp le appra isa l o f t he
sit uat io n , su ch as m ista k in g a st ick for a sna ke; o r (c) em o tion respon se
tend encies con ¯ ict with o ther im po rtan t go a ls, such as savin g on e’s sk in by
¯ eeing a ® gh t ver su s saving fa ce by stand ing on e’s groun d . E m o tion
regu la t io n th at invo lves initiating or increasing em otion s m ay occur
558 GROSS
when : (a ) em ot io n respo nse tendencies a re lack ing because on e’s m ind is
elsewhere, bu t o ne wish es t o m uster a n appro p ria tely en thu sia st ic respo nse
to an o th er ’s goo d news; o r (b) one d esires t o rep la ce one em otion with
ano ther, such as when on e is feelin g down , and on e wa n ts to sum m o n a
m ore posit ive em o tion a l st a te before ca llin g o n friends. O ne resea rch
pr io r ity is to d evelop a b et ter und erst and in g of what ind ividua ls a re t r ying
to accom plish when th ey regu la te their em otion s, keep in g in m in d th at
em ot io n regu lato ry go a ls m ay be no nconscio us, an d tha t t hey a re likely to
be h igh ly con text -sen sit iveÐ such as m a tch ing the em otio na l sta te o f an
an t icipa ted in teract ion p a rt ner (E rber, Wegn er, & T herr iau lt , 1996).
Emotion Regulatory Processes
W hat ind ivid ua ls wa n t to ach ieve a s t hey in¯ uence their em o tionsÐ th eir
em ot io n regu la to ry goa lsÐ m ust b e d ist in gu ished fro m the pro cesses they
invoke in o rd er to ach ieve these goa ls. O n e way to o rga n ise these em o tio n
regu la to ry p rocesses is by drawing o n a consen sua l p rocess m odel o f
em ot io n genera t io n . T h is m od el is a d ist illa t ion o f m a jo r p oin ts o f con-
vergence a m o ng em ot io n resea rchers wh o em pha sise b io logica l ba ses o f
em ot io n (m a jo r con tr ibu to r s to th is t r ad it ion inclu de: A rno ld , 1960; Buck ,
1985; E k m an , 1972; F r ijda , 1986; Iza rd , 1977; L aza ru s, 1991; P lu t ch ik ,
1980; Scherer, 1984; Tom k ins, 1962). A ccord in g to th is m odel, em o tio n
begins with an eva lua t io n o f ext erna l o r in terna l em ot io n cues. C er ta in
eva lua t io ns t r igger a co -ord in ated set o f behaviou ra l, experien t ia l, an d
physio logica l em o tion response tend encies. T hese respon se tend encies
m ay be m od u la ted , and it is th is m od u la tio n tha t gives ® n a l sh ap e to
m an ifest em o tion a l respon ses.
U sing th is sch em e, em otion regu la to ry p rocesses m ay be seen a s ta rget-
in g o ne or m ore o f ® ve p o in ts in th e em otion -gener at ive p ro cess (G ross,
1998b). F irst , regu la to ry str ategies m ay act o n the situa t ion it self. T h e m ost
forward -loo k ing appro ach m igh t be ca lled situation selection . T h is refer s to
approa ch in g o r avo id ing certa in peop le o r situa t ions on the basis o f th eir
likely em o tiona l im pact ; Sca r r an d M cC art ney (1983) h ave ca lled th is n ich e
p ick ing. O nce o ne is in an em otio n -elicit in g situa t io n , situation modifica-
tion is st ill po ssib le. T h is refers to m od ifying th e loca l environm en t so as to
a lter it s em o tiona l imp act . Situ at ion select io n and situa t ion m od i® ca t io n
help sh ape th e ind ividu a l’s situa t ion . H owever, it a lso is po ssib le to regu la te
em ot io ns witho u t actua lly ch angin g th e enviro nm en t . Situa t ion s h ave
m any aspect s, and attentional deployment refer s to h ow ind ividu a ls d irect
their a t ten t ion with in a given situa t ion in o rd er to in ¯ u ence their em otion s.
T h is includes a tt en t ion a l st ra tegies ra nging fro m d ist ra ctio n , wh ich fo cu ses
on non em o tion -relevan t a spects o f th e situ at ion , o r sh ift s a t ten t io n away
fro m the im m ed ia te situ at ion a ltogeth er (D er ryb erry & Ro thb a rt , 1988) to
EMOTION REGULATION 559
r um in a tio n , wh ich fo cu ses a tt en t io n on the situa t io n and its em otion a l
im p lica t io ns (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993). E ven a fter a sit ua t io n h as been
selected , m od i® ed , an d select ively a t tend ed to, it st ill is p ossible to a lt er
its em o tion a l im p act . Cognitive change refers t o eva lu at ing th e situa t ion
o ne is in so as t o a lt er its em otion a l signi ® cance, eit her by changin g h ow
o ne th ink s abo u t t he situa t ion o r abou t o ne’s capacity to m a nage th e
d em and s it po ses. Response modulation refer s to in ¯ u encing em o tion
response t endencies o nce th ey a rise. E veryd ay exp er ience is rep lete with
effo r ts to m an ipu la te em otion -exp ressive b ehaviou r, su ch a s h id ing an ger a t
an o ffen sive rem ark , a s well a s p hysio logica l respo nd ing, such as slowing
o ne’s b rea th ing ra te. I t is less cer ta in wh eth er em o tion exp erience can be
m od i® ed d irect ly, a lth ou gh cogn it ive, beh aviou ra l, a nd p ha rm aco logic
m eans a ll m ay b e used to m od ify em ot io n exp er ience ind irect ly.
CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH
A growin g sen se o f sh a red purpo se in th e do m a in o f em ot io n regu la t ion
h as led to greater con t act between previou sly d isp a ra te resea rch p rogram s.
In t he fo llowing sect io ns, I illu st ra te cu r ren t em otion regu la t ion resea rch
by d escr ib in g prom ising resea rch on b asic p ro cesses a nd in d ivid ua l d iffer-
ences in adu lt em otion regu la t ion (fo r a review of t he litera tu re on em otion
regu la t io n in ch ild ren , see T hom pson , 1990). R e¯ ect ing the b ias in con-
tem po ra ry resea rch , m y focus is o n th e regu la t io n o f n egat ive em ot io ns.
Basic Processes
A va riety o f em ot io n regu la to ry p rocesses have a t t r acted a tt en t ion , includ -
ing: R eca lling m o od-in congr uen t m em or ies (Pa rro t t & Sab in i, 1990; Sm ith
& Pet ty, 1995), h elp ing o th ers (Scha ller & C ia ld in i, 1990), exercising
(T hayer, N ewm an & M cC la in , 1994), seek in g so cia l sup po rt (R ippere,
1977), u sing drugs (M o rris & R eilley, 1987), a nd m a k ing socia l com par-
iso ns (Taylo r & L o bel, 1989). In t he fo llowing, I focus on two b asic
p rocessesÐ reappra isa l a nd sup pressio nÐ th at rep resen t two m a jo r po in ts
in t he em otion genera t ive p rocess a t wh ich em o tion s can b e regu la ted
(G ro ss, 1998b ).
Reappraisal. I t is widely agreed tha t a sit ua t io n typ ica lly d oes no t in
an d o f itself genera te em otion . R a ther, it is th e ind ividu a l’s eva luat ion o f
th a t situ a tion tha t is em ot io n -gen era t ive. O n e power fu l m eans o f em otion
regu la t io n , th erefore, is to m o d ify t he way a situa t io n is eva lu ated . Su ch
reappra isa ls m ay d ecrea se em o tiona l respond ing, a s when o ne im agin es
th a t gr aph ic n ews foo tage has been faked , o r increa se em o tiona l respo nd-
ing, a s wh en one rein terp ret s a joke a s a t h in ly veiled insu lt . R eappra isa l
560 GROSS
p lays a key ro le in t heo r ies o f em o tio n (e.g. L aza rus, 1991) an d st ress
reduct ion (e.g. K a tz & E pstein , 1991; M eichenbau m , 1985). U nfo rt u -
na tely, d esp ite its wide cur rency, even th e hyp o thesis tha t cogn it ive str a te-
gies m ay b e used to decrea se nega t ive em ot io nÐ wh ich is wh at we know
m ost abou tÐ ha s a surp r isin gly m o dest em p ir ica l foun da t io n . L ead in g
sub jects to reappra ise nega t ive em ot io n -elicit in g ® lms h as been shown to
decrease n egat ive em o tion experience (C an to r & W ilson , 1984; D andoy &
G oldstein , 1990; G ross, 1998a ; L aza rus & A lfer t , 1964). H owever, con -
com ita n t decrea ses in physio logica l respond ing a re o ft en n o t ob served (e.g.
G ross, 1998a ; Step to e & Vogele, 1986). W hy m igh t t h is be? O ne po ssib ility
is th at cogn it ive app ra isa ls p lay a lim ited ro le in th e generat ion o f physio -
logica l response tend encies in t he con text o f graph ic su rgery ® lm s
(LeD oux, 1989). If so, reappra isa l m igh t be expected to b e m ore effect ive
in com plex so cia l sit ua t io ns. In deed , Stem m ler (1997) ha s shown th at
reapp ra isa l inst r uct io ns led to decrea sed p hysio logica l respon d ing fo r
sub jects wh o an exp er im en ter verba lly ha r a ssed . O n e imp ort an t d irect io n
for fu tu re resea rch is t o u se reapp ra isa l a s a p ro be to cla r ify th e n atu re o f
cogn it ive p rocessing in em o tio n genera t ion an d regu la tio n .
Suppression. C on t em po ra ry in t erest in the effects o f inh ib it in g em o-
t ion -exp ressive b ehaviou r can be tr aced to W illiam Jam es. O n Jam es’
(1884) view, em otion -exp ressive beh aviou r was so im por tan t to em o tio n
tha t go in g th rough the ou tward m otio ns o f an em otiona l sta te cou ld give
rise t o tha t feelin g, an d lim it in g exp ressive beh aviou r cou ld decrease th e
associated feelings. O n e va rian t o f th is hypo th esis cam e to be kn own a s th e
``facia l feedb ack hyp o th esis’ ’ (Bu ck , 1980). M o st stud ies design ed to test
th is hypo thesis con cen t ra ted on the em otio n genera tio n aspect o f the
hyp o th esis, a nd ind eed , in it ia t ing em o tio n -expressive behaviou r seem s to
in crea se th e feeling o f th at em o tio n sligh t ly (M a tsum o to, 1987). F ewer
stud ies have test ed p red ict io ns rega rd ing the suppressio n o f ongo ing em o-
t ion a l behavio u r, a s it was a ssu m ed th a t inh ib it in g ongo ing em ot io n
exp ressive behaviou r wou ld sim p ly h ave the o ppo site effects from vo lun ta -
r ily p ro ducing em ot io n -exp ressive behaviou r (G ross & L evenson , 1993).
H owever, resu lts to da te d o no t suppo rt t he view tha t sup pressio n is th e
sim p le op posit e o f exaggera t ion . W hat is known suggest s tha t in h ib it ing
exp ressive behavio u r decreases self-repo r ted exp er ience o f som e em otion s
(e.g. p a in , p r ide, and am usem en t), bu t no t o thers (e.g. d isgu st , sa dness)
(fo r a review, see G ross & L evenson , 1997). Physio logica lly, in h ib it ing
exp ressive behavio u r wh ile wa it ing fo r a pa in fu l shock lea ds to d ecrea sed
sk in condu ctance react ivity (Co lby, L an zet ta , & K leck , 1977; L a nzet ta ,
C a r twr igh t-Sm ith , & K leck , 1976), bu t the effect s o f in h ib it ing em o tiona l
respo nses to o ther negat ive st imu li have inclu ded signs o f increa sed
sym p ath etic act ivat io n (G ross, 1998a ; G ro ss & L evenson , 1993, 1997).
EMOTION REGULATION 561
F u tu re resea rch sho u ld exp lo re th e ext en t t o wh ich the inh ib it io n o f
expressive b ehaviou r h as con sist en t effects across em otion s, and test
whether th ese effects a re sim ila r t o tho se o f a t tem pt in g to inh ib it o th er
a spect s o f the em otio na l respon se, su ch a s em o tiona l exp er ience.
Individual Differences
E m ot ion regu la t ion a lways takes p lace in the con t ext o f a pa r ticu la r
ind ivid ua l. Because ind ivid ua ls d iffer bo th in th e em otions they experi-
ence and in the way they regu late these emo tion s, any sepa r at ion between
the study of basic em otion regu lato ry p rocesses and ind ividua l d ifferences
in such processes m ust be rega rded as a tem pora ry conven ience rat her
tha n a long-term stra tegy (see G ross, in p ress). H owever, one m a jor
imped im ent to tak ing a process-o r ien t ed approach to persona lity is tha t
ind ivid ua l d ifferences in em otion regu lat io n have b een stud ied under a
d iscon cert in gly la rge num ber o f rub rics. C onstructs m ost clo sely related to
em otion regu lat ion include: Em otio na l con tro l (Roger & N aja r ian , 1989) ,
nega t ive m oo d regu lat ion (Ca tanza ro, 1996) , repression (Weinberger,
1990) , and ru m inat ion /d ist raction (N o len -H oeksem a , 1993) . R elated con-
str uct s inclu de: m on ito r ing/b lun t ing (M iller, 1987) , sensat ion seek ing
(Zuckerm an , 1979) , constructive th ink ing (Epstein & M eier, 1989), impu l-
sivity (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969) , behaviou ra l inh ib it ion (K agan, R ezn ick ,
& G ibbons, 1989) , con stra in t (Tellegen , 1985) , am biva lence over em o-
t iona l exp ressivity (K ing & E m m ons, 1990) , delay o f gr at i® cat ion (M is-
chel, 1974), a lexithym ia (Taylo r, Bagby, & P arker, 1997), cop ing style
(Ca rver, Scheier, & Wein traub, 1989), ego con tro l (Blo ck & Block ,
1980) , and em otiona l in telligence (Sa lovey & M ayer, 1990) . R ather than
at tem pt ing a com prehensive review, I illu strat e recent research on ind ivi-
du a l d ifferences in em otion regu lat ion by focusing on two well-stud ied
ind ivid ua l d ifferen cesÐ rum ina tion and repressionÐ that were selected to
rep resen t con scious and nonconscious em otion regu lato ry p rocesses tha t
va ry d iam etr ica lly in their use o f at ten t io n.
Rumination . T h is refer s t o ``behavio u rs an d tho ugh ts t ha t fo cus on e’s
a t ten t io n o n one’s d ep ressive sym pto m s’ ’ (N o len -H oeksem a , 1991, p. 569).
E xam ples include dwelling on p rob lem s o ne is havin g at wo rk , fo cusing on
feelings o f t iredness o r b od ily pa in s, and worrying abou t havin g yet
an o th er sleep less n igh t . W hen assessed by N olen -H o eksem a ’s R espon se
Styles Q u estion na ire (N o len -H oeksem a & M o rrow, 1991), d ispo sit ion a l
rum in a tio n has m o dera te st ab ility over per iods a s lon g as o ne yea r (Ju st
& A lloy, 1997). Ru m in at ion is effo r t fu l, con t ro lled , a nd consciou s, a nd
seem s to be a imed a t reducing depressive feelings, a lt hou gh its actu a l
effect is usua lly the opp osite. H igher levels o f d ispo sit ion a l ru m ina t ion
562 GROSS
a re a ssocia ted with greater likelihoo d of develo p ing d ep ressive sym p tom s
(Ju st & A lloy, 1997; N o len -H o ek sem a , P a rker, & L ar son , 1994), m o re
severe dep ressive sym pto m s (Just & A lloy, 1997; N o len -H oeksem a &
M o rrow, 1991; N o len -H o ek sem a , M o rrow, & F redr ick son , 1993), an d
lo nger dep ressive ep isod es (N o len -H oeksem a , 1993; N o len -H o ek sem a ,
M cBr id e, & L a rson , 1997). I n t he con text o f an an a lysis o f sex d ifferences
in dep ression , N o len -H oeksem a (1993, p. 308) h as a rgu ed tha t ``it is m o re
ef® cien t and p o ten t ia lly u sefu l t o fo cu s o n p eop le’s styles o f respon d ing to
the sp eci® c m o od sta tes t han to u t ilize m ore globa l constructs’ ’ . H owever,
fro m a bro ader em ot io n regu la to ry p ersp ect ive, o ne m igh t exp ect th at
ru m ina t ion in the con text o f o ther em o tiona l st ates such as an ger, gu ilt ,
o r anxiety wo u ld h ave com pa rable consequences in term s of p rod ucing
m ore in ten se an d longer-la st ing ep isodes o f each o f these em o tion s.
E xp lo ring ind ividua l d ifferences in ru m ina t ion with o ther em o tio na l sta tes
is a clea r resea rch pr io r ity in th is a rea .
Repression . Since th e 1950s, hu ndreds o f stu d ies have exa m ined th e
rep ressive cop ing style, and th ere recen t ly h as been a rena issan ce o f
in terest in t h is con struct (Eglo ff & K rohn e, 1996). I n con t ra st t o th e
con tro lled a tt en t ion to dep ressive feelings tha t cha racter ises ru m ina t ion ,
rep ression app ea rs t o be an au tom a tic a t ten t iona l d efen ce aga inst
un p lea san t st im uli (Bona nno & Singer, 1990) and accom p anying a ffec-
t ive a rou sa l (K ro hne, 1996), po ssib ly invo lvin g increased a t ten t ion to
p lea san t tho ugh ts (Bod en & Baum eister, 1997, bu t see M cFa rlan d &
Bueh ler, 1997). R epressive tendencies a re typ ica lly o pera t io na lised as
low scores on a tra it an xiety m ea sure in com bina t io n with h igh sco res
on a socia l desir ab ilit y m ea su res th at tap s d efen siveness (Weinb erger,
Schwar tz, & D avidson , 1979). C lin ician jud gem en t s o f defensiven ess
a lso h ave been u sed (Shed ler, M aym an , & M an is, 1993). R epresso r s
repo r t feeling low levels o f anxiety (by de® n it io n ), and these report s
m ay re¯ ect less freq uen t nega tive em ot io n exper ience. In t erest in gly,
rep resso rs’ capac ity fo r n ega t ive em otion experience appea rs und im in-
ished , a lt hou gh they d o lack the secon da ry em otion s tha t u su a lly a ccom -
pany an em otion exp er ience (D avis, 1987; E glo ff & K rohn e, 1996;
H ansen & H a nsen , 1988). Behaviou ra lly, rep resso rs show d ecrea sed
exp ressive behaviou r (Levenson , M ad es, & M eek , 1980), a lth ou gh th is
in h ib it ion o f exp ressive b ehaviou r m ay n o t be eviden t when sub ject s do
no t kn ow they a re being ob served (e.g. A send orp f & Scherer, 1983).
Physio logica lly, rep resso rs tend to b e m ore a rou sed p hysio logica lly
tha n o ther sub jects who repo rt low a nxiet y, a s shown by grea ter fron ta -
lis region electro m yogr aph ic (EM G ) a ct ivity (Weinb erger et a l., 1979),
in crea sed co r t iso l levels (Brown et a l., 1996), a nd increased sym pa thet ic
act iva tio n (e.g. K oh lm ann , Weid ner, & M essin a , 1996; L even son et a l.,
EMOTION REGULATION 563
1980; N ewto n & C ont rad a , 1992; Weinberger, 1990). F u tu re resea rch will
b e needed to cla r ify rep resso rs’ typ ica l p at terns o f em otio na l exp er ience
an d exp ression , and to assess m ore p recisely where in th e em o tion -
gen era t ive p rocess rep resso rs regu la te em o tion .
THEORETICAL CHALLENGES AND
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
T h is selective review o f recent resea rch d em o nst ra tes th e in tegra t ive
p ower o f the const ru ct o f em otion regu la t ion . A ppa ren t ly d isp a ra te
con cern s a re b rough t und er on e roo f, help ing to sha rpen quest io ns
abou t p o in ts o f convergen ce an d d ivergence a m o ng p rocesses. H owever,
th e no t io n of em ot io n regu la t io n a lso po ses a num ber o f ser iou s th eo re-
t ica l cha llen ges. I n the fo llowin g sect ion s, I d iscu ss ® ve o f t he m o st
p ressing o f these ch a llen ges, a nd suggest a num ber o f d irect ions for
fu tu re resea rch .
What Is Regulated in Emotion Regulation?
T h om pson (1994) ra ises t he imp ort an t q uestion a s to wh at is regu la ted in
em o tion regu la tio n . I have suggested th at em otion regu la t io n invo lves
cha nges in b ehaviou ra l, exper ien t ia l, and /o r p hysio logica l respo nses.
Because em o tio ns unfo ld over t im e, th ese chan ges invo lve a ltera t ions in
``em ot io n dyna m ics’ ’ (Tho m p son , 1990), o r th e la tency, r ise t ime, m agn i-
tu de, du r a t io n , and offset o f respon ses in o ne or m ore dom a ins. E m otion
regu la t io n a lso m ay invo lve cha nges in h ow respo nse com po nen ts a re
in t er rela ted as th e em otion unfo lds over t im e, such a s when la rge
increa ses in physio logica l respo nd ing occu r in the ab sence o f overt
b eh aviou r. H owever, em o tion respon se com po nen ts a re no to r io usly
loo sely in terkn it (L an g, R ice, & Stern bach , 1972), an d inferences ab ou t
em o tion regu la t ion based on d iscrep ancies acro ss respo nse chan nels m ust
b e m ad e with cau t io n . Specifyin g precisely wha t is regu la ted Ð and
whether em ot io n regu lat ion h as ta ken pla ce at a llÐ is o ne o f the m o st
ser io us ch a llenges th is a rea faces. To m eet th is ch a llenge, we need a m ore
com plete u nd erstan d ing of th e relat ion s am o ng em o tion respon se com -
p onen t s bo th when in d ividua ls regu la te a nd when they do n o t regu la te
th eir em ot io ns.
How Can One Tell When Emotion Is Regulated?
D e® n ing em ot io n regu la t io n in term s of chan ges in em otion respo nses begs
th e qu est ion : C han ges co m pa red with wha t? Presum ab ly, em otion regu la -
t io n m ay be infer red when an em o tiona l respon se wou ld have pro ceeded in
564 GROSS
on e fash ion , bu t instead proceeds in an o ther. In feren ces such as th ese a re
fraugh t with dan ger. A n expressio n less face in som eone who typ ica lly
gesticu lates wild ly a t the sligh test excuse m ay be r ich with m ean in g, bu t
tha t sa m e lack of expressio n in som eon e who ra rely shows any sign of
em ot io n is m uch less strongly suggest ive o f em otion regu la tio n . A lso , a s
a tt em pt s at elicit ing em o tion in t he lab o rato ry have am ply d em on str a ted ,
em ot io na l respo nses va ry a s a fu nct io n o f sub t le environm en ta l cues (G ross
& L evenson , 1995). T h is m ean s th a t em otion regu la t ion can no t be in ferred
un less the situa t io n as p erceived by th e in d ivid ua l shou ld have elicited a
d ifferen t em ot ion respon se p ro ® le tha n th e o ne tha t was shown . E m o tio n
regu la tion th us requ ires a fo rm idab le level o f cer t a in ty abo u t em ot ion in it s
un regu lated state. W ithou t th is, d iscu ssio ns o f em otion regu la t ion becom e
po std ict ion s th a t can exp la in any pa t tern o f ® n d ings(K appa s, 1996). T h is
is p a r t icu la r ly t rue when em o tion regu lat ion is invoked to exp la in a lack of
em ot io n wh ere em o tion m igh t b e exp ected , in wh ich case two h idd en
pro cessesÐ em ot io n an d em o tion regu la t io nÐ are invoked to exp la in t o a
no nrespo nse (F r ijd a , 1986). L it t le is kn own ab ou t th e com p lexit ies o f
no rm a t ive em otion a l respon d ing, let a lone th e effects o f d isposit iona l
va r iab les, su ch as n eu ro t icism (G ross, Su t to n , & K etelaa r, 1998), an d
gro up d ifferen ces, su ch as sex (K r in g & G ord on , 1998). T h is m ean s th at
a t best , p robab ilist ic sta tem en t s can b e m ade abou t em ot io n regu lat ion in
any given ca se. To sp ecify whenÐ an d whetherÐ em o tion regu lat ion h as
occur red , m uch m ore will n eed to be lea rned ab ou t b asic em o tiona l
respo nses.
Is Emotion Ever Not Regulated?
Pro cesses sub serving em ot io n regu la t io n a re t igh t ly in ter twin ed with th ose
invo lved in em ot io n gen era t ion . I nd eed , som e th eo rists have respo nd ed to
th is in t erd igita t ion o f em otion -regu la to ry and em otion -genera t ive p ro -
cesses by a rgu ing tha t em o tion regu la t ion is pa rt an d pa rcel o f em o tio n
(F rijda , 1986). A ft er a ll, adu lt em ot io n is a lm ost a lways regu la ted in on e
way or ano ther (Tom k ins, 1984), an d it now appea r s th a t cla ssica lly
cond it io ned responses a re no t era sed when they a re ext ingu ished , bu t
ra ther sup pressed (M organ , Ro m ask i, & L eD ou x, 1993). If em ot io n cen -
t res in t he lim b ic syst em are t on ica lly rest ra in ed by o ther b ra in region s
su ch as t he perfron t a l co rt ex (Stuss & Ben son , 1986), do esn’ t t he term
em ot io n regu la t io n lo se it s va lue? I wou ld a rgue tha t the qu est ion `̀ I s
em ot io n ever not regula ted?’ ’ is m islead in g, in t ha t it suggests a n a ll-o r-
no ne a ffa ir. A concep t ion of rela t ive regu la tion seem s m ore app rop r iate.
G iven the wid e ra nge of neu ra l p ro cesses im p licated in em o tio n , however, it
will be a cha llenge to d raw a clea r line between em o tion an d em ot io n
regu la tion .
EMOTION REGULATION 565
What Level of Analysis Should Be Used?
Som e resea rchers h ave assessed the consequ ences o f one or two sp eci® c
fo rm s o f em otion regu la t io n , in o ne em o tiona l con text , u sing a focused set
o f respo nse m easu res (e.g. N o len -H oeksem a , 1993). O th ers h ave exam in ed
em o tion regu la tio n in fa r m o re genera l term s u sing a b ro ad a rr ay o f
response m easu res (E isen berg et a l., 1995) . I n m y own m ult im eth od work
o n em otion suppressio n (G ross, 1998a ; G ross & L evenson , 1993, 1997), I
h ave been m o re imp ressed with sim ila r it ies th an d ifferen ces in t he effects o f
em o tion sup pressio n across em ot io ns, bu t o ne im po rta n t d ifferen ce has
em erged , in th a t suppressing p osit ive em ot ion -exp ressive behavio u r su ch as
am usem en t , decreases am usem en t exp er ience, wherea s sup pressin g nega -
t ive em ot io n -exp ressive behaviou r d oes no t have com parab le effects. O ne
im por tan t d irect ion for fu tu re resea rch is t o cha r t th e imm ed iate a nd
lon ger-term consequences o f d ifferen t form s of em o tion regu la t io n in t he
con text o f d ifferen t em otion a l sta tes.
How Does Emotion Regulation Relate to Other
Forms of Impulse Regulation?
E m otiona l imp u lses are by no m eans the on ly impu lses with wh ich we must
cont end . O ne pressing quest ion is how emo tion regulat ion relates to o ther
form s of regu la tion , such as m ood regu la t ion (Ca rver & Scheier, 1990; T hayer,
1996) , though t con tro l (Wegner, 1994) , and still o ther form s of imp ulse
regu lat ion (Baum eister & H eatherton , 1996; Block & Block , 1980) . In it ia l
evidence suggests m odest co rrelat io ns am on g m easures o f impu lse regu lat ion
in ch ild ren (Kopp, 1982; R eed , P ien , & Rothba rt , 1984) and adu lts (K ing,
E m m o ns, & Wood ley, 1992). G iven the em ergin g consensus that d iscrete and
d imensio na l levels o f ana lysis are com pat ib le rather th an in com petit ion with
one ano ther, m odels o f emotion regu la t ion and m ood regu la tion even tu ally
m ay take their p lace in supero rd inate m odels o f a ffect regulat ion . I t seem s
reasonable, however, to m a in ta in d ist inctions between processes that regu la te
em otion , on the one hand , and those that regu la te though ts (e.g. Wegner &
Bargh , 1998) o r well-lea rn t operan t responses (e.g. Logan , Schacha r, &
Tannock, 1997) on the o ther. I t is less obvious whether p rocesses that reg-
u late em otiona l impu lses shou ld be d ist ingu ished from those th at regu la te
im pu lses a ssociated with hunger, th irst , aggression , an d sexua l a rousa l (Bu ck,
1985) . Th ese issues seem certa in to at tr act con t inued in terest, a s researchers
from a va riety o f hom e dom a ins (e.g. weigh t loss, substan ce abuse, aggression ,
em otion regu lat io n : see Baum eister & H eatherton , 1996) begin to fash ion
stronger em pirica l links across d iverse form s of self-regu lat io n .
M anuscrip t received 2 M arch 1999
566 GROSS
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